This paper reviews research done relating to the impact of computer-based technologies on learners from different genders. The research studies done in this area which I have been able to access have focussed on the following issues:

• effects gender differences in attitudes of middle and high school students towards computers
  
• gender differences in the use of computer mediated communication by post graduate distance students
  
• gender difference amongst kindergarten students and their preferences regarding different multimedia learning interfaces
  
• the relationship between cognitive style and performance of primary school boys and girls who learnt science via multimedia and traditional materials
  
• the effect of gender on software preferences amongst primary school students
  
• how primary school boys and girls think about and use computers

These studies have been done mostly in schools overseas and higher education settings, including distance education. They have also employed a range of quantitative and qualitative methodologies which have included surveys, questionnaires, ethnographies, tests, interviews and observations.

Effects of gender on perceptions of and preferences for computer based learning environments

Proost & Lowyck (1997) investigated the effects of gender on perceptions of and preferences for computer based learning environments. Traditional and open and distance learning university students were surveyed via a questionnaire which was mailed to them. A total of 1368 students (945 males and 416 females) over 18 years of age were surveyed but the response rate was only 34%.

Results indicated that women had a significantly more negative perception of computer based technology and a preference for traditional methods than men. The researchers suggested that this difference was due to “experience rather than gender” (377) They also found that women have a stronger preference for social contact than men.  However they maintain that these findings cannot be regarded as a decisive variable for explaining perceptions and preferences for ICT as these could be due to other variables apart from ones attitudes to computers. They suggest the need for further research.

Gender differences in attitudes of middle and high school students towards computers

Young (2000) investigated gender differences in attitudes of 462 middle and high school students towards computers via an attitude survey. In this survey she attempted to measure the following five factors associated with computer attitudes: confidence, perception of computers as a male domain, positive teacher attitudes, negative teacher attitudes and perceived usefulness of computers.

Her findings included:

• Boys spend significantly more time on computers at school and home
  
• Boys strongly agreed that computers were a male domain but girls rejected this
  
• Boys tended to have higher confidence levels
  
• Boys perceived negative teacher attitudes towards them but this did not affect their confidence
  
• Girls perceived more encouragement in using computers but this did not seem to assist their confidence levels. 

Gender differences in the use of computer mediated communication by post graduate distance students

Barrett and Lally (1999) studied the use of computer mediated communication by post graduate distance students to find out gender differences. An ethnographic approach was used in which data was collected from students electronic diaries, questionnaires and transcripts of all their online contributions.

They found that whilst the cognitive content of their on line contributions were similar the different genders displayed differences in their social and interactive behaviours. Men sent more messages, wrote longer messages and included greater levels of social exchange. Women tended to send more interactive messages and tended to include references to previous exchanges.

From these findings the researchers concluded that relations within an online learning environment may be influenced by gender. They also point out the need for further research to help develop teaching and learning strategies to enhance the learning of both sexes in a mixed sex online learning environment.

Gender difference amongst kindergarten students and their preferences regarding different multimedia learning interfaces

Passing and Levin (2000) investigated gender difference amongst kindergarten students regarding their preferences to varying designs of multimedia learning interfaces. Their aim was to find out the characteristics of multimedia interfaces which interest boys and girls.

They based their study on the assumption that a friendly and clear interface helps users to access the information efficiently and assists with motivation to use the multimedia program.

A sample of 90 children (44 girls and 46 boys) was given a range of multimedia products with a range of interfaces to work through and then asked to fill in a simple questionnaire using the Pollimeter ruler for easier responses.

Their findings revealed that boys were more attracted to movement whereas girls were more attracted to visual aspects. For example boys preferred to know how to continue and go backwards, a pace which was fast, a variety of choices on the screen and square and arrow type of buttons. Girls on the other hand emphasised writing, colour, drawings, help and a calm-moderate game.

The researchers point out that most computer games designed today tend to cater for the preferences of boys with emphasis on control, choice, and fast navigation. They also suggest the need for further to help “ develop a model of styles of design for learning interfaces in order to reach a gender-free learning environment”. (70)

The relationship between cognitive style and performance of primary school boys and girls who learnt science via multimedia and traditional materials

Riding & Grimley (1999) explored the relationship between cognitive style and performance of 11-year-old boys and girls who learnt science via multimedia and traditional materials. Eighty students (40 males and 40 females) from a primary school were first assessed for their cognitive style and then given a multi-choice recall test after studying a science topic via a CD Rom multimedia package. Their scores were compared with their performance when learning similar topics via traditional materials.

Results indicated that with regard to the mode of presentation of the multimedia materials, girls who were Wholist-Imagers and Analytic-Verbalisers were better with presentations which had picture and sound than those which had only picture and text. Those who were Wholist-Verbalizers and Analytic-Imagers were better with presentations which had picture and text than those which had only picture and sound. The results were the opposite for boys. For both gender groups performance was best with presentations which combined picture, text and sound.

From this they concluded “there appears a fundamental difference in the ways in which males and females process information” from different modes of multimedia presentation and called for more research in this area. They argued that “gender differences may have important implications for the design and use of multimedia materials” (55). They also challenged assumptions that boys and girls learn in the same way and any differences are due to cultural factors.

They also refer to other research regarding differences in how males and females process information. They state that “males process faster, but to a more superficial level, than females, who are more thorough.”(48). Also males do better when their cognitive style suits the task but this is not so with females especially in situations where processing time is limited. This is attributed to females processing information in more thorough ways.

The effect of gender on software preferences amongst primary school students

Joiner (1998) explored the effect of gender on childrens software preferences. Sixteen boys and sixteen girls, aged between 10 and 11, from a state primary school in the UK were given 4 versions of a computer based software and asked to rate their preferences after using them. The four versions comprised a male-stereotyped version (Pirates), a female-stereotyped version (Princesses), a gender neutral version (Honeybears) and an abstract version (Blocksworld)

The results indicated that overall the boys preferred Pirates more than the Princesses whereas the girls preferred the Princesses more than the Pirates. However, the girls also showed no significant differences in their preferences for either the Pirates, Princesses or the Honeybears. The researcher did not interview the students to find the reasons for their preferences. This could have revealed some additional insights into these results.

Other related research findings Joiner cites which seems interesting, and which I will follow up later once I get them on inter library loan are:

• On a male-stereotyped computer based task boys performed better than girls (Barbieri and Light 1992)
  
• On a gender neutral computer based task it was found that there was no gender difference in performance (Littleton et al 1995)

Joiner concludes from his study that an understanding of the reasons relating to gender differences and developing solutions for overcoming them will help in the design and use of educational software which meets the needs of all genders.

How primary school boys and girls think about and use computers

Huber et al (1998) studied how boys and girls think about and use computers in a Costa Rican primary school in grades K, 2, 4, and 6). The research methods he used included observation of classes, semi-structured interviews with teachers and students, and attitude-based questionnaires.

His key findings were:

• students generally have a positive attitude towards computers
  
• girls like computers less and are less confident of their ability to use it  and tend to be more anxious about the computing lab environment than boys
  
• teachers, parents and students behave towards boys in ways which encourage them in computer use
  
•  the computer lab is a microcosm of Costa Rican society  in that  gender roles and expectations are of the wider society are reinforced in the school computer labs.

Other thoughts on gender and computer-based learning

Apart from the above research based studies, various thoughts and ideas have also been expressed by other scholars on various aspects of the impact of computer based technologies on the different genders.

Yates (1997), for example, comments on computer-mediated communication (CMC) and gender and in particular the extent to which gender in real life influences interactions, text, contexts and technologies of CMC. She discounts assumptions, which say CMC removes the basis for bias and discrimination due to the fact that it does not have face to face cues. She argues that gender is made clear in the form and content of the language used. From research studies she reviews she states that women contributed less than men in CMC interactions, posted shorter messages, received less replies and were more likely to respond to personal aspects of discussions or post replies to other postings.  She says this parallels face to face interactions and shows that CMC reflects this.

Spender (1995) in her book Nattering on the Net: women, power and cyberspace, reports on a visit to Methodist Ladies College in Melbourne and noticing physical changes in the classroom learning environment. For example there were no desks. The girls were using their laptops lying on the carpeted floor which they felt more comfortable with. The school timetable had been modified to enable more sustained computer work.

Spender also points out how socialisation contributes towards alienating girls from computers. Girls from an early age are not socialised into risk-taking like boys but taught to plan out things before embarking on them. This is why with new technologies like computers; boys dominate usage in that they are quicker in getting to know how to use it. This is because they are more likely to play to figure it out whereas girls are more likely to find out how it works, the consequences of actions and so on, before they engage with it.

Kelly (2000) in her paper on why girls get turned off by computer science,  contends that this is due to their perception that they are not good at computer science and their belief that it is an area of study that does not involve a lot of teamwork and social interaction which is what tends to interest them. She also makes the point that most of the computer games are created for male audiences with emphasis on things they are attracted to like action and violence. Hence the greater interest and more time spent by boys with computers as opposed to girls. And with more males getting into careers in the computing industry, they perpetuate this cycle of catering for the needs of a predominantly male audience who gain an entry point into the computing world via games and later take up careers in the computing industry.

Conclusion

From the review of research-based studies relating to the impact of computer based technologies on different genders, the main findings appear to be as follows:

• Women in distance based universities had a significantly more negative perception of computer based technology and a preference for traditional methods than men. (Proost & Lowyck ,1997)
  
• Boys in middle and high schools spend significantly more time on computers, see computers as a male thing and tend to have higher confidence levels whereas girls get more encouragement in using computers but this did not seem to assist their confidence levels. (Young, 2000)
  
• Men and women in higher education online learning environments display differences in their social and interactive behaviours (Barrett and Lally. 1999)
  
• At the kindergarten level boys tend to be more attracted to movement whereas girls are more attracted to visual aspects (Passing and Levin, 2000)
  
• There is a difference in the ways in which males and females at the primary level process information from different modes of multimedia presentation (Riding & Grimley, 1999)
  
• Boys and girls at the primary level tend to prefer software which align with their interests however girls tend to also like software which is gender neutral (Joiner, 1998)
  
• Societies expectations of the roles of different genders is reflected in how boys and girls and their teachers view and use computers in the classroom (Huber et al, 1998)

What seems evident is that there is a range of differences in how boys and girls access, use and interact with computer-based technologies. What does not seem to have been investigated thoroughly enough so far is how the design of computer based learning environments and resources impact on the learning of students of different gender. This is an area in which future research can make a worthwhile contribution.

References

Bromley, H (1998) “Introduction: Data-Driven Democracy? Social Assessment of Educational Computing” in Education, technology, power: educational computing as a social practice, ed. H Bromley and M W Apple, State University of New York, USA

Curriculum Support Directorate (1977) Computer-based technologies in the primary KLA’s. New South Wales Department of Education and Training.

Huber, B.R and Schofield J W (1998)“The Gender Gap: Why Do Girls Get Turned Off to Technology?” Education, technology, power: educational computing as a social practice, ed. H Bromley and M W Apple, State University of New York, USA pp103-131

Joiner, R.W (1998) “The effect of gender on children’s software preferences”, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 14: 195-198

Kelly, Karen. (2000) “The Gender Gap: Why Do Girls Get Turned Off to Technology?” The Digital Classroom, ed. D. T. Gordon, The Harvard Education Letter, Cambridge, pp 154-160

Kerr, S.T. (2000) “Toward a Sociology of Educational Technology” Handbook of Research for Education Communications and Technology. ed. D. H. Jonassen, New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, pp 143-169

McRae, D (2001) What to make, and why: principles for the design and development of online curriculum content. Report prepared for SOCCI.

Passing, D. & Levin, H. (2000) “Gender Preferences for Multimedia interfaces”, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16: 64-71

Proost, K.,Elen J. &  Lowyck J. (1997) “Effects of Gender on Perceptions of and Preferences for Telematic Learning Environments”, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Summer, 29(4): 370-384

Queensland University of Technology, Faculty of Education, (2001) SOCCI Market Research Report 

Riding, R. & Grimley, M. (1999) “Cognitive style, gender and learning from multi-media materials in 11 year old children”, British Journal of Educational Technology, 30, 1: 43-56

Spender, K (1995) Nattering on the Net: women, power and cyberspace. Spinifex Press, North Melborne

Winfield et al ( 1999) Design Considerations for Enhancing Confidence and Participation in Web Based Courses

Yates, S.J (1997) “Gender, identity and CMC”, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 13: 281-290

Young B. L. (2000) “Gender Differences in Student Attitudes towards Computers”, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Winter, 33(2): 204-213